Preface

List of Contributors

Acknowledgement

Introduction to Forensic Science

1.1 Forensic Science

1.2 The Forensic Process

1.2.1 Forensic Principles and the Crime Scene

1.2.2 Preparatory Issues in Laboratory Analysis

1.2.3 Interpretation of Forensic Evidence

1.3 Judicial Systems

1.3.1 Criminal vs. Civil Law

1.3.2 Adversarial vs. Inquisitorial System

1.3.3 Rules of Evidence

1.3.4 Types of Evidence

1.3.5 Opinion and Expert Testimony

1.4 The Role of Analytical Chemistry in Forensic Science

1.4.1 Techniques used for Chemical Analysis

2. Analytical Methodology and Experimental Design

2.1 Scientific Method

2.2 What Do We Mean By Analysis?

2.3 The Stages of Analysis

2.3.1 Quantification

2.4 Analysis Development

2.4.1 Error Estimation

2.4.2 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

2.4.3 Method Development and Experimental Designs

2.4.4 Selecting Critical Variables with Factorial Designs

2.4.5 Modelling the Significant Variables using Response Surface Designs

3 Presumptive Testing

3.1 Drugs

3.1.1 Drugs seizure sampling

3.1.2 Major drug classes

3.1.3 Presumptive tests for drugs

3.2 Firearms Discharge Residue

3.2.1 Firearms Discharge Residue Sampling

3.2.2 Firearms Discharge Residue Presumptive Tests

3.3 Explosives

3.3.1 Explosive Residue Sampling

3.3.2 Explosive Residue Presumptive Tests

3.4 Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)

3.4.1 Breath Alcohol Testing

3.4.2 Saliva-Based Testing

3.5 Ignitable Liquid Residues

3.6 Non-Chemical Presumptive Tests

3.6.1 Electronic Detectors

3.6.2 Canine Detection

4 Sample Preparation

4.1 Sample preparation

4.2 Extraction

4.2.1 Solvent Extraction

4.2.2 Liquid-liquid Extraction

4.2.3 Solid phase Extraction

4.2.4 Solid-phase Microextraction

4.2.5 QuEChERS

4.2.6 Sample Handling Post Extraction

4.3 Sample Preparation for Inorganic Analyses

4.3.1 Total Analysis

4.3.2 Chemical Speciation

4.4 DNA Profiling

4.5 Conclusion

5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

6 UV-Vis and Fluorescence Spectroscopy

6.1 Forensic Introduction

6.2 Theory

6.2.1 Electronic Transitions

6.2.2 Photoluminescence and Fluorescence

6.2.3 Quantifiation

6.3 Instrumentation

6.3.1 UV-Vis Spectrometers

6.3.2 Fluorescence Spectrometers/Fluorometers

6.3.3 Coupling Techniques

6.3.4 Microspectrophotometers

6.3.5 Hyperspectral Imaging

6.3.6 Filtered Light Examination

6.4 Application to Analyte

6.4.1 Transmission Analysis in Solution

6.4.2 MSP Sample Preparation

6.4.3 Acquiring a Spectrum

6.4.4 Forensic Applications

6.5 Interpretation and Law

6.5.1 Interpreting UV-Vis Spectra

6.5.2 Interpreting Fluorescence Spectra

6.5.3 UV-Vis and Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Court

6.6 Case Studies

6.6.1 Case Study 1

6.6.2 Case Study 2

6.7 Forensic Developments

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Theory of technique

7.2.1 Basis of technique

7.2.2 Instrumentation

7.2.3 Transmission spectroscopy

7.2.4 Reflectance spectroscopy

7.2.5 Infrared microspectroscopy

7.2.6 Handheld and portable instruments

7.3 Application to analyte

7.3.1 Sampling

7.3.2 Spectrum analysis

7.4 Interpretation and law

7.5 Case studies -- Discrimination of acrylic fibres

7.6 Forensic developments

8. Raman Spectroscopy

8.1. Forensic introduction

8.2. Theory

8.2.1. Raman Scattering

8.2.2. Modes of Vibration

8.2.3. Raman Shift

8.2.4. Raman instrumentation

8.2.5. Advanced Techniques

8.2.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Raman Spectroscopy

8.3. Application to analyte

8.3.1. Acquiring a spectrum

8.3.2. Forensic applications

8.4. Interpretation and Law

8.4.1. Interpreting Raman Spectra

8.4.2. Raman spectroscopy in court

8.5. Case Studies

8.5.1. Case Study 1

8.5.2. Case Study 2

8.6. Forensic Developments

9. Scanning Electron Microscopy in Forensic Analysis

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Theory of the technique

9.2.1. Scanning Electron Microscope

9.2.2. X-Ray detection

9.2.3. Operating conditions

9.2.4. Specimen preparation

9.3. Application to analyte(s)

9.3.1. Gunshot Residue

9.3.2. Glass

9.3.3. Other samples

9.4. Interpretation and law

9.4.1. Evidence evaluation on source level

9.5. Case study

9.5.1. GSR -- case study

9.5.2. Glass -- comparison and classification problem

9.5.3. Glass -- was the car bulb switched on during accident?

10 Mass spectrometry in forensic science

10.1 Introduction

10.1.1 Forensic Application of Mass Spectrometry

10.2 Theory of Technique

10.2.1 Principles of Mass Spectrometry

10.2.2 Sample Introduction

10.2.3 Modes of Sample Ionisation

10.2.4 Ion Separation -- Mass Analysers

10.2.5 Ion Detection

10.2.6 Anatomy of a Mass Spectrum

10.3 Application to Analytes

10.4 Interpretation and law -- interpretation of results in forensic and legal context

10.4.1 Chain of Custody

10.4.2 New Forensic Regulations

10.4.3 ID criteria -- Screen and Confirmation

10.4.4 Chromatographic Criteria

10.4.5 Mass Spectrometric Identification Criteria

10.5 Case studies

10.5.1 Serial Killing by Poisoning

10.5.2 Surreptitious Insulin Administration

10.6 Forensic developments

10.6.1 Beyond Blood and Urine

10.6.2 High Mass Accuracy Mass Spectrometry

10.6.3 Mobile Mass Spectrometers

11 Isotope Ratio