About the Editors xiii -- List of Contributors xv -- Preface xix -- Section I Materials and Sensors Development Including Case Study 1 -- 1 Smart Sensors for Monitoring pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Electrical Conductivity, and Temperature in Water 3 Kiranmai Uppuluri -- 1.1 Introduction 3 -- 1.2 Water Quality Parameters and Their Importance 4 -- 1.2.1 Impact of pH on Water Quality 4 -- 1.2.2 Impact of Dissolved Oxygen on Water Quality 5 -- 1.2.3 Impact of Electrical Conductivity on Water Quality 5 -- 1.2.4 Impact of Temperature on Water Quality 5 -- 1.3 Water Quality Sensors 6 -- 1.3.1 pH 7 -- 1.3.1.1 pH Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 7 -- 1.3.1.2 Glass Electrode 7 -- 1.3.1.3 Solid- State Ion- Selective Electrodes 8 -- 1.3.1.4 Metal Oxide pH Sensors 8 -- 1.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen 10 -- 1.3.2.1 DO Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 10 -- 1.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors 10 -- 1.3.2.3 Electrochemical Sensors 11 -- 1.3.2.4 Optical or Photochemical Sensors 12 -- 1.3.3 Electrical Conductivity 13 -- 1.3.3.1 Conductivity Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 13 -- 1.3.4 Temperature 15 -- 1.3.4.1 Temperature Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 16 -- 1.3.4.2 Thermocouples 17 -- 1.3.4.3 Resistance Temperature Detector 17 -- 1.3.4.4 Thermistor 17 -- 1.3.4.5 Integrated Circuit 18 -- 1.4 Smart Sensors 18 -- 1.5 Conclusion 18 -- Acknowledgment 19 -- References 19 -- 2 Dissolved Heavy Metal Ions Monitoring Sensors for Water Quality Analysis 25 Tarun Narayan, Pierre Lovera, and Alan O’Riordan -- 2.1 Introduction 25 -- 2.2 Sources and Effects of Heavy Metals 26 -- 2.3 Detection Techniques 26 -- 2.3.1 Analytical Detection: Conventional Detection Techniques of Heavy Metals 26 -- 2.3.2 Electrochemical Detection Techniques of Heavy Metals 26 -- 2.3.2.1 Nanomaterial- Modified Electrodes 29 -- 2.3.2.2 Metal Nanoparticle- Based Modification 29 -- 2.3.2.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticle- Based Modification 33 -- 2.3.2.4 Carbon Nanomaterials- Based Modification 34 -- 2.3.3 Biomolecules Modification for Heavy Metal Detection 35 -- 2.3.3.1 Antibody- Based Detection 35 -- 2.3.3.2 Nucleic Acid- Based Detection 37 -- 2.3.3.3 Cell- Based Sensor 38 -- 2.4 Future Direction 40 -- 2.5 Conclusions 40 -- Acknowledgment 41 -- References 42 -- 3 Ammonia, Nitrate, and Urea Sensors in Aquatic Environments 51 Fabiane Fantinelli Franco -- 3.1 Introduction 51 -- 3.2 Detection Techniques for Ammonia, Nitrate, and Urea in Water 53 -- 3.2.1 Spectrophotometry 53 -- 3.2.2 Fluorometry 54 -- 3.2.3 Electrochemical Sensors 54 -- 3.3 Ammonia 59 -- 3.3.1 Ammonia in Aquatic Environments 59 -- 3.3.2 Ammonia Detection Techniques 62 -- 3.4 Nitrate 65 -- 3.4.1 Nitrate in Aquatic Environments 65 -- 3.4.2 Nitrate Detection Techniques 65 -- 3.5 Urea 67 -- 3.5.1 Urea in Aquatic Environment 67 -- 3.5.2 Urea Detection Techniques 69 -- 3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 71 -- Acknowledgment 71 -- References 71 -- 4 Monitoring of Pesticides Presence in Aqueous Environment 77 Yuqing Yang, Pierre Lovera, and Alan O’Riordan -- 4.1 Introduction: Background on Pesticides 77 -- 4.1.1 Types and Properties 77 -- 4.1.2 Risks 78 -- 4.1.3 Regulation and Legislation 79 -- 4.1.4 Occurrence of Pesticide Exceedance 80 -- 4.2 Current Pesticides Detection Methods 80 -- 4.2.1 Detection of Pesticides Based on Electrochemical Methods 82 -- 4.2.1.1 Brief Overview of Electrochemical Methods 82 -- 4.2.1.2 Detection of Pesticides by Electrochemistry 82 -- 4.2.2 Detection of Pesticides Based on Optical Methods 83 -- 4.2.2.1 Detection of Pesticides Based on Fluorescence 87 -- 4.2.3 Detection of Pesticides Based on Raman Spectroscopy 89 -- 4.2.3.1 Introduction to SERS 89 -- 4.2.3.2 Fabrication of SERS Substrates 91 -- 4.2.3.3 Detection of Pesticide by SERS 92 -- 4.2.3.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 95 -- 4.3 Conclusion 96 -- Acknowledgment 96 -- References 96 -- 5 Waterborne Bacteria Detection Based on Electrochemical Transducer 107 Nasrin Razmi, Magnus Willander, and Omer Nur -- 5.1 Introduction 107 -- 5.2 Typical Waterborne Pathogens 108 -- 5.3 Traditional Diagnostic Tools 108 -- 5.4 Biosensors for Bacteria Detection in Water 110 -- 5.4.1 Common Bioreceptors for Electrochemical Sensing of Foodborne and Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria 110 -- 5.4.1.1 Antibodies 111 -- 5.4.1.2 Enzymes 111 -- 5.4.1.3 DNA and Aptamers 111 -- 5.4.1.4 Phages 112 -- 5.4.1.5 Cell and Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 112 -- 5.4.2 Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Sensing of Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria 112 -- 5.4.2.1 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 113 -- 5.4.2.2 Conducting Polymeric Nanoparticles 114 -- 5.4.2.3 Carbon Nanomaterials 114 -- 5.4.2.4 Silica Nanoparticles 114 -- 5.5 Various Electrochemical Biosensors Available for Pathogenic Bacteria Detection in Water 115 -- 5.5.1 Amperometric Detection 115 -- 5.5.2 Impedimetric Detection 121 -- 5.5.3 Conductometric Detection 123 -- 5.5.4 Potentiometric Detection 124 -- 5.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective 126 -- Acknowledgment 127 -- References 127 -- 6 Zinc Oxide- Based Miniature Sensor Networks for Continuous Monitoring of Aqueous pH in Smart Agriculture 139 Akshaya Kumar Aliyana, Aiswarya Baburaj, Naveen Kumar S. K., and Renny Edwin Fernandez -- 6.1 Introduction 139 -- 6.2 Metal Oxide- Based Sensors and Detection Methods 140 -- 6.3 pH Sensor Fabrication 141 -- 6.3.1 Detection of pH: Materials and Method 141 -- 6.3.2 Detection of pH: Surface Morphology of the Nanostructured ZnO and IDEs 144 -- 6.3.3 Detection of pH: Electrochemical Sensing Performance 145 -- 6.3.4 Detection of Real- Time pH Level in Smart Agriculture: Wireless Sensor Networks and Embedded System 149 -- 6.4 Conclusion 151 -- Acknowledgment 152 -- References 152 -- Section II Readout Electronic and Packaging 161 -- 7 Integration and Packaging for Water Monitoring Systems 163 Muhammad Hassan Malik and Ali Roshanghias -- 7.1 Introduction 163 -- 7.2 Advanced Water Quality Monitoring Systems 167 -- 7.2.1 Multi- sensing on a Single Chip 167 -- 7.2.2 Heterogeneous Integration 169 -- 7.2.3 Case Study: MoboSens 169 -- 7.3 Basics of Packaging 171 -- 7.4 Hybrid Flexible Packaging 173 -- 7.4.1 Interconnects 174 -- 7.4.2 Thin Die Embedding 176 -- 7.4.3 Encapsulation and Hermeticity 178 -- 7.4.4 Roll to Roll Assembly 180 -- 7.5 Conclusion 181 -- References 181 -- 8 A Survey on Transmit and Receive Circuits in Underwater Communication for Sensor Nodes 185 Noushin Ghaderi and Leandro Lorenzelli -- 8.1 Introduction 185 -- 8.2 Sensor Networks in an Underwater Environment 186 -- 8.2.1 Acoustic Sensor Network 186 -- 8.2.1.1 Energy Sink- Hole Problem 187 -- 8.2.1.2 Acoustic Sensor Design Problems 188 -- 8.2.1.3 The Underwater Transducer 189 -- 8.2.1.4 Amplifier Design 190 -- 8.2.1.5 Analog- to- Digital Converter 194 -- 8.2.2 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves Underwater Sensors 197 -- 8.2.2.1 Antenna Design 198 -- 8.2.2.2 Multipath Propagation 198 -- 8.3 Conclusion 199 -- Acknowledgment 199 -- References 200 -- Section III Sensing Data Assessment and Deployment Including Extreme Environment and Advanced Pollutants 203 -- 9 An Introduction to Microplastics, and Its Sampling Processes and Assessment Techniques 205 Bappa Mitra, Andrea Adami, Ravinder Dahiya, and Leandro Lorenzelli -- 9.1 Introduction 205 -- 9.1.1 Properties of Microplastics 208 -- 9.1.2 Microplastics in Food Chain 209 -- 9.1.3 Human Consumption of Microplastics and Possible Health Effects 209 -- 9.1.4 Overview 210 -- 9.2 Microplastic Sampling Tools 212 -- 9.2.1 Non- Discrete Sampling Devices 212 -- 9.2.1.1 Nets 212 -- 9.2.1.2 Pump Tools 213 -- 9.2.2 Discrete Sampling Devices 215 -- 9.2.3 Surface Microlayer Sampling Devices 215 -- 9.3 Microplastics Separation 215 -- 9.3.1 Separating Microplastics from Liquid Samples 215 -- 9.3.1.1 Filtration 215 -- 9.3.1.2 Sieving 216 -- 9.3.2 Separating Microplastics from Sediments 218 -- 9.3.2.1 Density Separation 218 -- 9.3.2.2 Elutriation 218 -- 9.3.2.3 Froth Floatation 219 -- 9.4 Microplastic Sample Digestion Process 220 -- 9.4.1 Acidic Digestion 221 -- 9.4.2 Alkaline Digestion 221 -- 9.4.3 Oxidizing Digestion 221 -- 9.4.4 Enzymatic Degradation 222 -- 9.5 Microplastic Identification and Classification 222 -- 9.5.1 Visual Counting 222 -- 9.5.2 Fluorescence 223 -- 9.5.3 Destructive Analysis 223 -- 9.5.3.1 Thermoanalytical Methods 224 -- 9.5.3.2 High- Performance Liquid Chromatography 225 -- 9.5.4 Nondestructive Analysis 225 -- 9.5.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 225 -- 9.5.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy 226 -- 9.6

Conclusions 228 -- Acknowledgment 229 -- References 229 -- 10 Advancements in Drone Applications for Water Quality Monitoring and the Need for Multispectral and Multi- Sensor Approaches 235 Joao L. E. Simon, Robert J. W. Brewin, Peter E. Land, and Jamie D. Shutler -- 10.1 Introduction 235 -- 10.2 Airborne Drones for Environmental Remote Sensing 237 -- 10.3 Drone Multispectral Remote Sensing 239 -- 10.4 Integrating Multiple Complementary Sensor Strategies with a Single Drone 241 -- 10.5 Conclusion 242 -- Acknowledgment 243 -- References 243 -- 11 Sensors for Water Quality Assessment in Extreme Environmental Conditions 253 Priyanka Ganguly -- 11.1 Introduction 253 -- 11.2 Physical Parameters 255 -- 11.2.1 Electrical Conductivity 255 -- 11.2.2 Temperature 258 -- 11.2.3 Pressure 260 -- 11.3 Chemical Parameters 262 -- 11.3.1 pH 262 -- 11.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen and Chemical Oxygen Demand 265 -- 11.3.3 Inorganic Content 268 -- 11.4 Biological Parameters 271 -- 11.5 Sensing in Extreme Water Environments 273 -- 11.6 Discussion and Outlook 276 -- 11.7 Conclusion 278 -- References 278 -- Section IV Sensing Data Analysis and Internet of Things with a Case Study 283 -- 12 Toward Real- Time Water Quality Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks 285 Sohail Sarang, Goran M. Stojanović, and Stevan Stankovski -- 12.1 Introduc ...