Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Overview of Lichen -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Distribution -- 1.3 Morphology and Anatomy -- 1.4 Reproduction -- 1.5 Lichen Phytochemicals -- 1.6 Economic Importance -- 1.7 Conservation -- 1.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2 The Biology of Lichen -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Lichen Life Form -- 2.2.1 Crustose -- 2.2.2 Foliose -- 2.2.3 Fruticose -- 2.2.4 Leprose -- 2.2.5 Squamulose -- 2.3 The Internal Structure of Lichen -- 2.4 Reproduction of Lichen -- 2.5 Lichen Substrates -- References -- Chapter 3 Taxonomy of Lichen -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Identification of Lichen -- 3.2.1 Microscopic Approaches -- 3.2.1.1 Morphology -- 3.2.1.2 Anatomy -- 3.2.2 Chemical Approaches -- 3.2.2.1 Color Spot Test -- 3.2.2.2 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) -- 3.2.2.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) -- 3.2.3 Molecular Approaches -- 3.3 Nomenclature of Lichen -- 3.4 Classification of Lichen -- 3.5 Phylogeny of Lichen -- 3.6 Molecular Taxonomy of Lichens -- 3.7 Therapeutic and Commercial Values of Lichen -- 3.8 Conclusion -- Authors' Conflict -- Authors' Contribution -- References -- Chapter 4 Lichen as Habitats for Other Organisms -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Lichens as Habitat -- 4.2.1 Microorganism Living in Lichen -- 4.2.1.1 Fungi -- 4.2.1.2 Lichen Photobiont -- 4.2.2 Insects and Other Invertebrates Living on Lichen -- 4.2.3 Vertebrates Using Lichen as a Shelter or Food -- 4.3 Benefits of Living in Lichens -- 4.4 Importance of Lichen for Biodiversity -- 4.5 Threats to Lichen Habitats -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Ecology of Lichen -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Ecological Habitats -- 5.3 Ecological Factors for Lichen Development -- 5.3.1 Effect of Climate on Growth of Lichen -- 5.3.2 Rainfall -- 5.3.3 Temperature.

5.3.4 Snowfall -- 5.3.5 Light Intensity -- 5.3.6 Interaction Between Factors -- 5.3.7 Rock Chemistry -- 5.3.8 Bird Dropping -- 5.3.9 Nitrogen and Phosphorus -- 5.3.10 Salinity -- 5.3.11 Pollution -- 5.4 Adaptations of Lichen -- 5.4.1 Adaptation of Lichen to Anthropogenic Activities -- 5.4.2 Adaptations in Freshwater -- 5.4.3 Terricolous Lichen -- 5.4.4 Adaptation to Marine Lichens -- 5.4.5 Corticolous Lichen -- 5.5 Lichens in Extreme Habitat -- 5.5.1 Antarctica -- 5.5.2 Chemically Rich Environments -- 5.5.3 Extra-terrestrial Environments -- 5.5.4 Alpine Regions -- 5.5.5 The Arctic -- 5.5.6 Desert -- 5.5.7 Lichen on Lava -- 5.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 6 Physiology of Lichen -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Mycobiont -- 6.1.2 Photobiont: Phycobiont and Cyanobiont (Cyanolichen) -- 6.2 Physiological Interaction -- 6.3 Metabolism -- 6.4 Physiological Peculiarities -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7 Lichen as Pioneer of Natural Ecosystem -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Lichens as Pioneer of Ecological Succession -- 7.2.1 Lichens as a Pioneer on Rock Surfaces -- 7.2.2 Lichens as Pioneers on Soil Surfaces -- 7.2.3 Lichens as Pioneers for Colonizers on Tree -- 7.3 Impact of Lichen on Natural Ecosystem -- 7.3.1 Impacts of Lichens on Biogeochemical Cycles of Ecosystem -- 7.3.2 Impact of Lichens on Maintaining Humidity and as a Source of Food and Shelter in the Ecosystem -- 7.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Conservation of Lichens -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 History -- 8.1.2 What are Lichens? -- 8.1.3 Substrate and Habitat -- 8.1.4 Licheno-geographic Regions of India -- 8.1.5 Lichens in Indian Languages -- 8.1.6 Threats and Conservation of Lichens -- 8.2 Important Roles of Lichens -- 8.2.1 Role of Lichen as a Food Source -- 8.2.2 Role of Lichen in Nitrogen Fixation -- 8.2.3 Lichen's Role as an Environmental Indicator.

8.3 Biogeography (Geographic Distribution of Lichen) -- 8.3.1 Prominent Areas of Research in Conservation Biogeography -- 8.3.2 Why Lichens Require Special Conservation Measures -- 8.4 Conservation of Lichen Diversity -- 8.4.1 International Initiatives on the Conservation of Lichens -- 8.4.2 Lichen Conservation Initiatives in India -- 8.5 Conservation Challenges of Lichens -- 8.6 Recommendation for Conservation of Lichens -- 8.6.1 Species-based Conservation -- 8.6.2 Habitat-based Conservation -- 8.6.3 Issue-based Conservation -- 8.6.3.1 Urban/Sub-urban Development -- 8.6.3.2 Air Pollution -- 8.6.3.3 Invasive Exotic Plants -- 8.6.3.4 Forestry Practices -- 8.6.3.5 Wildfire -- 8.6.3.6 Smuggling and Poaching or Hunting -- 8.6.3.7 Illegal Grazing -- 8.6.3.8 Tourism -- 8.6.4 In Vitro Techniques for Lichen Conservation -- 8.6.5 Awareness Creation Activities -- 8.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 Lichen at the Age of Climate Change -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Adaptation of Lichen to the Harsh Environment -- 9.3 Impact of Climate Change on Lichen Flora -- 9.4 Sensitivity of Lichen to Climate Change -- 9.5 Lichen as an Indicator of Climate Change -- 9.6 Transplant Experiment on Lichen -- 9.7 Carbon Sequestration by Lichen -- 9.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10 Commercial and Traditional Uses of Lichen -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Historical Background -- 10.3 Lichen as Ethnomedicine -- 10.4 Cultural Aspects of Lichen -- 10.5 Commercial Uses of Lichen -- 10.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens and Their Therapeutic Potential -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Diversity in Lichens -- 11.2.1 Reindeer Lichens (Cladonia spp) -- 11.2.2 British Soldier Lichen (Cladonia genera) -- 11.2.3 Crustose Lichen -- 11.3 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens -- 11.3.1 Lichen Acids -- 11.3.2 Fumarprotoceteraric Acid -- 11.3.3 Lecanoric Acid.

11.3.4 Therapeutic Potential of Lichens -- 11.3.5 Antimicrobial Activity -- 11.3.6 Antioxidant Activity -- 11.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 12 Antioxidant Properties of Lichen -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Botanical History of Lichens -- 12.3 Classification of Lichen -- 12.3.1 Crustose Lichens -- 12.3.2 Fruticose Lichens -- 12.3.3 Foliose Lichens -- 12.4 Source and Formation of Lichen -- 12.5 Antioxidant Property -- 12.6 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Activity in Lichens -- 12.6.1 Phenolic Compounds -- 12.6.2 Usnic Acid (UA) -- 12.6.3 Atranorin -- 12.6.4 Lecanoric Acid -- 12.6.5 Fumarprotocetraric Acid -- 12.6.6 Orcinol, Orsellinic Acid and Orsellinates -- 12.7 Antioxidant Activity in Parmelia sulcata, Lasallia pustulata, Hypogymnia physodes -- 12.8 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Behavior in Cetraria islandica -- 12.8.1 Antarctica Lichens Extract -- 12.9 Techniques Used to Determine the Antioxidant Activities in Lichens -- 12.9.1 Cyclic Voltammetric Technique -- 12.9.2 Amperometric Technique -- 12.9.3 Biosensor Technique -- 12.9.4 Chromatographic Techniques -- 12.10 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 13 Antimicrobial Activities of Lichens -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Antimicrobial Compounds of Lichen -- 13.2.1 Dibenzofuran and Its Derivatives -- 13.2.2 Depsidones -- 13.2.3 Depsides -- 13.2.4 Quinones and Its Derivatives -- 13.2.5 Xanthones -- 13.2.6 Chromones and Pyrones -- 13.2.7 Nitrogenous and Sulfur-Containing Compounds -- 13.2.8 Steroids and Terpenoids -- 13.2.9 Ambuic Acid and Its Derivatives -- 13.2.10 Phenolic Compounds and Its Derivatives -- 13.2.11 Ether Derivatives -- 13.2.12 Miscellaneous Compounds -- 13.3 Lichen Species Having Antimicrobial Properties -- 13.3.1 Ramalina farinacea -- 13.3.2 Platismatia glauca -- 13.3.3 Evernia divaricata -- 13.3.4 Bryoria fuscescens -- 13.3.5 Alectoria sarmentosa.

References -- Chapter 3 Taxonomy of Lichen -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Identification of Lichen -- 3.2.1 Microscopic Approaches -- 3.2.1.1 Morphology -- 3.2.1.2 Anatomy -- 3.2.2 Chemical Approaches -- 3.2.2.1 Color Spot Test -- 3.2.2.2 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) -- 3.2.2.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) -- 3.2.3 Molecular Approaches -- 3.3 Nomenclature of Lichen -- 3.4 Classification of Lichen -- 3.5 Phylogeny of Lichen -- 3.6 Molecular Taxonomy of Lichens -- 3.7 Therapeutic and Commercial Values of Lichen -- 3.8 Conclusion -- Authors' Conflict -- Authors' Contribution

References -- Chapter 4 Lichen as Habitats for Other Organisms -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Lichens as Habitat -- 4.2.1 Microorganism Living in Lichen -- 4.2.1.1 Fungi -- 4.2.1.2 Lichen Photobiont -- 4.2.2 Insects and Other Invertebrates Living on Lichen -- 4.2.3 Vertebrates Using Lichen as a Shelter or Food -- 4.3 Benefits of Living in Lichens -- 4.4 Importance of Lichen for Biodiversity -- 4.5 Threats to Lichen Habitats -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Ecology of Lichen -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Ecological Habitats -- 5.3 Ecological Factors for Lichen Development