Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Foreword -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Hydraulic Fracture Geometry from Mineback Mapping -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Summary of Mapped Fracture Geometries -- 1.2.1 Fractures in Coal -- 1.2.1.1 DHM-7 Fracture -- 1.2.1.2 DDH 190 Fracture -- 1.2.2 Fractures in Hard Rock -- 1.2.2.1 Northparkes E48 Mapped Fractures -- 1.2.3 Other Mapped Fractures -- 1.3 Comparison of Mapped Fracture Geometries -- 1.3.1 Dimensionless Parameters -- 1.4 Fracture Geometry Summary -- 1.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2 Measurements of the Evolution of the Fluid Lag in Laboratory Hydraulic Fracture Experiments in Rocks -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Materials and Methods -- 2.2.1 Materials and Experimental Set-up -- 2.2.2 Methods -- 2.2.3 Experimental Design -- 2.3 Results -- 2.3.1 MARB-005 -- A HF Growth with a Fluid Lag -- 2.3.2 MARB-007 -- A HF Growth during and after the Injection -- 2.3.3 GABB-002 -- A Point-Load Like HF Growth -- 2.4 Discussions and Conclusions -- 2.4.1 Resolution of the Fluid Front Location -- 2.4.2 Quasi-Brittle Effects -- 2.4.3 Hydraulic Fracture Surfaces -- 2.4.4 Conclusions -- Data Availability -- Appendix A Determination of the Time of Fracture Initiation -- References -- Chapter 3 Mapping Hydraulic Fracture Growth Using Tiltmeter Monitoring Technique -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Forward Problem Formulation -- 3.2.1 Forward Model Definition -- 3.2.2 Forward Model -- 3.2.2.1 Point Source Dislocation Singularity Model -- 3.2.2.2 A General Distributed Dislocation Model -- 3.3 Bayesian Inversion Method -- 3.4 Field Applications -- 3.4.1 Inversion Results Using the Point Source Forward Model -- 3.4.2 Inversion Results Using the General Planar Forward Model -- 3.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 4 Experimental Observations of Hydraulic Fracturing.

4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Experimental Setup on Laboratory-Scale -- 4.3 Laboratory Investigation of Fluid-.Driven Fractures in Various Applications -- 4.3.1 Hydraulic Fracturing in Oil and Gas Reservoirs -- 4.3.1.1 Basic Issues of Breakdown Pressure and Fracture Geometry -- 4.3.1.2 Multiple Hydraulic Fracture Growth -- 4.3.1.3 Interactions Between Hydraulic Fractures and Natural Fractures -- 4.3.1.4 Fracture Propagation Through the Layered Formation -- 4.3.1.5 Nonlinear Fracturing in the Deep Reservoir -- 4.3.1.6 Cyclic Fracturing -- 4.3.2 Environmental Fracturing in a Shallow Formation -- 4.3.3 Hydraulic Stimulation in EGS -- 4.4 Conclusions and Future Work -- References -- Chapter 5 First Field Trail and Experimental Studies on scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Review on scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.2.1 Shale and scCO2 Interaction -- 5.2.1.1 Microscale Physical Changes -- 5.2.1.2 Microscale Chemical Changes -- 5.2.1.3 Macroscale Mechanical Changes -- 5.2.1.4 Conclusions on the Experiments on Shale and scCO2 Interaction -- 5.2.2 Experiments and Numerical Simulations on scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.2.2.1 Experiments on scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.2.2.2 Numerical Simulations on scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.3 A Field Trail on scCO2 Fracturing of Continental Shale in Yanchang Oil Field -- 5.3.1 scCO2 Fracturing Technology -- 5.3.2 scCO2 Fracturing Field Test -- 5.3.2.1 Reservoir Properties of Test Wells -- 5.3.2.2 Fracturing Process and Operation Parameters -- 5.3.3 Field Test Results and Analysis -- 5.3.3.1 Microseismic Monitoring and Inversion of Fracture Geometry -- 5.3.3.2 Production Data -- 5.4 Challenges in scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.4.1 scCO2 Fracturing Mechanism Is Still Not Clear -- 5.4.2 Challenges in Proppants Carrying -- 5.4.3 Challenge on the Predicting and Monitoring CO2 Phase -- 5.4.4 Lack of Specialized Equipment for scCO2 Fracturing -- 5.5 Conclusions.

Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 6 An Unstructured Moving Element Mesh for Hydraulic Fracture Modeling -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Discrete Model of a Planar Hydraulic Fracture -- 6.2.1 Unstructured Mesh -- 6.2.2 Discrete Elasticity Equation -- 6.2.3 Discretized Lubrication Equations for Channel Elements -- 6.2.4 Tip Elements -- 6.3 Time-Marching Algorithm -- 6.3.1 Iteration Loops -- 6.3.2 Local Front Update -- 6.3.3 Generation of a New Ring of Tip Elements -- 6.3.4 Crack Surface Remeshing -- 6.3.5 General Solution Algorithm Logic -- 6.4 Numerical Simulations: Stress Barriers -- 6.4.1 Description of Experiment -- 6.4.2 Numerical Simulations (no Remeshing) -- 6.4.3 Comparison with Experimental Results and Other Simulations -- 6.4.4 Illustration and Assessment of the Element Re-Meshing Strategy -- 6.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 7 Study of Hydraulic Fracture Interference with a Lattice Model -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 XSite Code Overview -- 7.3 Numerical Studies of Fracture Interference -- 7.3.1 Interaction of a Hydraulic Fracture with a Natural Fracture -- 7.3.2 Interaction of Two Hydraulic Fractures -- 7.3.2.1 Numerical Study -- 7.3.2.2 Interpretation of Results -- 7.3.3 Interaction of Hydraulic Fractures in Injection of Multiple Clusters -- 7.3.4 Interaction of Hydraulic Fractures in Fractured Medium -- 7.3.5 Interaction of Hydraulic Fractures in Zipper-Stage Injection -- 7.4 Afterword -- References -- Chapter 8 The Tipping Point: How Tip Asymptotics Can Enhance Numerical Modeling of Hydraulic Fracture Evolution -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Mathematical Model -- 8.2.1 Assumptions -- 8.2.2 Governing Equation -- 8.2.2.1 Elasticity -- 8.2.2.2 Fluid Transport -- 8.2.2.3 Boundary and Propagation Conditions -- 8.2.2.4 Tip Asymptotics, Vertex Solutions, and Generalized Asymptotes.

8.3 Discretization, Coupled Equations, and the Multiscale ILSA Scheme to Locate the Free Boundary -- 8.3.1 Discretization -- 8.3.2 Locating the Free Boundary Using the Implicit Level Set Algorithm (ILSA) -- 8.4 Numerical Results -- 8.4.1 Symmetric Stress Barrier: m-Vertex Solution vs Experiment and the Effect of Toughness -- 8.4.2 A Stress Drop: Distinct Propagation Regimes Along the Periphery -- 8.5 Conclusions -- 8.6 Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 9 Plasticity: A Mechanism for Hydraulic Fracture Height Containment -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 The Dependence of the Effective Fracture Toughness on Propagation Direction -- 9.3 Effective Fracture Toughness vs. Closure Stress -- 9.4 A New Brittleness Index Defines Fracture Containment -- 9.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 10 Turbulent Flow Effects on Propagation of Radial Hydraulic Fracture in Permeable Rock -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Model Formulation -- 10.2.1 Problem Definition -- 10.2.2 Governing Equations -- 10.2.2.1 Crack Elasticity -- 10.2.2.2 Fluid Flow -- 10.2.2.3 Fracture Propagation -- 10.2.2.4 Boundary Conditions -- 10.2.2.5 Global Fluid Volume Balance -- 10.3 Solution Approach -- 10.4 Solution Examples for Typical Field Applications -- 10.5 Limiting Propagation Regimes -- 10.6 Normalization of the Governing Equations -- 10.7 Problem Parameter Space Analyses -- 10.7.1 Zero Leak-Off Case (Impermeable Rock) -- 10.7.2 Nonzero Leak-Off Case (Permeable Rock) -- 10.8 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 11 Analysis of a Constant Height Hydraulic Fracture -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Governing Equations -- 11.3 Tip Region -- 11.4 Vertex Solutions -- 11.4.1 Storage Viscosity -- 11.4.2 Leak-off Viscosity -- 11.4.3 Storage Toughness -- 11.4.4 Leak-off Toughness -- 11.5 Full Solution -- 11.6 Application Examples -- 11.7 Summary -- References.

Chapter 12 Discrete Element Modeling of Hydraulic Fracturing -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Discrete Element Modeling of Hydraulic Fracturing -- 12.3 Hydraulic Fracture Interacting with Natural Fractures -- 12.3.1 Hybrid Discrete-Continuum Method -- 12.3.2 Model Calibration for a Hydraulic Fracture in Intact Rock -- 12.3.3 Orthogonal Crossing -- 12.3.3.1 Effects of Stress Ratio and Friction of Natural Fractures -- 12.3.3.2 Effect of Strength (Toughness) Contrast -- 12.3.3.3 Effect of Stiffness (Modulus) Contrast -- 12.3.4 Non-Orthogonal Crossing -- 12.3.5 Fracturing Complexity -- 12.4 DEM Modeling of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Fracturing -- 12.4.1 New Algorithm for the Toughness-Dominated Regime -- 12.4.2 Numerical Model Setup -- 12.4.2.1 Model Description -- 12.4.2.2 Model Verification -- 12.4.3 Hydraulic Fracturing in Intact Rock Sample -- 12.4.4 Hydraulic Fracturing in Fractured Rock Sample -- 12.5 DEM Modeling of Fluid Injection into Dense Granular Media -- 12.5.1 Background and Experimental Motivation -- 12.5.2 Model Setup -- 12.5.3 Effect of the Injection Rate -- 12.5.4 Dimensionless Time Scaling -- 12.5.5 Energy Partition -- 12.6 Discussion -- 12.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 13 Interaction of a Hydraulic Fracture with Natural Fractures of Lesser Height and Weak Bedding Interfaces as a Possible Mechanism for Fracture Swarms -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Possible Mechanisms for Fracture Bifurcation -- 13.3 Interaction of Closely Spaced Parallel Fractures -- 13.4 Possible Mechanisms for Creating Fracture Swarms -- 13.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 14 Hydraulic Fracturing Mechanisms Leading to Self-Organization Within Dyke Swarms -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Swarm Morphology and Fundamental Drivers -- 14.3 Dyke Swarm Model and Energetics -- 14.4 Alignment -- 14.5 Avoidance -- 14.6 Stress Shadow -- 14.7 Stress Plugs.